Bluetooth is a wireless technology that allows devices to communicate over short distances (typically up to 10 m) using low-power radio waves. Bluetooth enables short-range data and voice communication between devices, such as smartphones, headphones, speakers, laptops, printers, and medical equipment. Bluetooth supports various protocols and profiles to provide different services, such as audio streaming, file transfer, device positioning, and internet access. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which oversees the development of the specification, the qualification program, and the trademark protection.

Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency band, using frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) to avoid interference and increase security. FHSS divides the data into packets and hops between 79 channels, each with a bandwidth of 1 MHz, at a rate of 1600 hops per second. Bluetooth devices also use adaptive frequency-hopping (AFH) to detect and avoid channels that are occupied by other wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi.

• Bluetooth Classic: This is the original version of Bluetooth, which supports data rates of up to 3 Mbps and is mainly used for streaming audio and data transfer applications. Some of the profiles that Bluetooth Classic supports are Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP), Hands-Free Profile (HFP), and Serial Port Profile (SPP).
• Bluetooth Low Energy (LE): This is a newer version of Bluetooth, which supports data rates of up to 2 Mbps and is designed for low power consumption and long battery life. Bluetooth LE is mainly used for device communication and positioning applications. Some of the profiles that Bluetooth LE supports are Generic Attribute Profile (GATT), Device Information Service (DIS), and Proximity Profile (PXP).
• Bluetooth 5: This is the latest version of Bluetooth, which supports data rates of up to 50 Mbps and offers four times the range and eight times the broadcast capacity of Bluetooth 4.2. Bluetooth 5 also introduces new features, such as direction finding and long range mode, which enable high accuracy indoor location services and extended outdoor coverage.

To find out more about Bluetooth, visit the Bluetooth website: https://www.bluetooth.com/learn-about-bluetooth/tech-overview/.

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi typically operates within a range of up to 100 meters indoors and up to 300 meters outdoors, depending on the power and version of the Wi-Fi device. However, Wi-Fi range can be affected by various factors, such as obstacles, interference, antenna design, and environmental conditions.

Wi-Fi has evolved over the years to offer higher data rates, lower power consumption, and improved security and reliability. Wi-Fi is also compatible with the Internet Protocol (IP), which means that Wi-Fi devices can easily access the Internet and communicate with other IP-based devices. Let’s review the most common Wi-Fi versions:

• Wi-Fi 4 (IEEE 802.11n): This version supports data rates of up to 600 Mbps and operates in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. It also introduces multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology, which uses multiple antennas to increase throughput and range 12
• Wi-Fi 5 (IEEE 802.11ac): This version supports data rates of up to 3.5 Gbps and operates only in the 5 GHz band. It also uses wider channels, more spatial streams, and beamforming technology, which directs the radio signal to the intended receiver
• Wi-Fi 6 (IEEE 802.11ax): This version supports data rates of up to 10 Gbps and operates in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. It also uses orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA), which divides the channel into smaller subchannels to accommodate more devices and reduce latency.
• Wi-Fi 7 is the next-generation wireless standard, which is set to supersede Wi-Fi 6E. Wi-Fi 7, officially known as 802.11be, builds on the foundation laid forth by Wi-Fi 6E. That means that it supports 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz wireless bands. Below are some of its proposed features:
  • A maximum channel bandwidth of 320 MHz, which is double the bandwidth of Wi-Fi 6E
  • Up to 16 spatial streams and multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology, which uses multiple antennas to increase throughput and range
  • 4096-QAM (4K-QAM) modulation, which enables each symbol to carry 12 bits rather than 10 bits, resulting in 20% higher theoretical transmission rates than Wi-Fi 6E’s 1024-QAM
  • Multi-link operation (MLO), which allows a device to simultaneously send and receive data across different frequency bands and channels, increasing capacity and reducing latency
  • Flexible channel utilization, which enables a device to avoid interference by blocking off a portion of the channel that is impacted, while continuing to use the rest of the channel
  • A theoretical maximum data rate of 46 Gbps, which is nearly five times faster than Wi-Fi 6E’s 9.6 Gbps

Wi-Fi 7 is still in the draft specifications phase and hasn’t been officially certified by the Wi-Fi: https://www.wi-fi.org/who-we-are/current-work-areas#Wi-Fi%207.

• Zigbee 2007: This is the original version of Zigbee, which supports data rates of up to 250 kbps and is mainly used for home automation, lighting control, and security applications. Some of the profiles that Zigbee 2007 supports are Home Automation Profile (HAP), Commercial Building Automation Profile (CBAP), and Smart Energy Profile (SEP).
• Zigbee PRO: This is an enhanced version of Zigbee, which supports data rates of up to 250 kbps and offers improved security, reliability, and network management. Zigbee PRO is mainly used for industrial, commercial, and residential applications. Some of the profiles that Zigbee PRO supports are Zigbee Light Link (ZLL), Zigbee Green Power (ZGP), and Zigbee IP (ZIP).
• Zigbee 3.0: This is the latest version of Zigbee, which supports data rates of up to 250 kbps and offers backward compatibility with previous Zigbee versions and profiles. Zigbee 3.0 is designed to unify the Zigbee ecosystem and enable interoperability among Zigbee devices from different manufacturers and applications.

To find out more about Zigbee, visit the Connectivity Standards Alliance website: https://csa-iot.org/.

Z-Wave

Z-Wave also operates in the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) radio bands. Z-Wave devices can use the 800-900 MHz frequency band, which has 16 channels and a data rate of up to 100 kbps. Z-Wave devices can transmit data over distances of up to 100 meters indoors and 800 meters outdoors, depending on the power output and environmental conditions. Z-Wave devices can communicate in different modes, such as point-to-point, broadcast, and mesh, and is compatible with the Internet Protocol (IP).

Z-Wave has various applications in different domains, such as home automation, lighting control, security systems, smart energy, and smart health. Z-Wave is promoted and standardized by the Z-Wave Alliance, which certifies device compliance and interoperability. Z-Wave is also supported by the GSMA group, which defines a platform for the deployment of Z-Wave standards within mobile handsets.

Z-Wave has evolved over the years to offer higher performance, lower power consumption, and improved security and reliability. The latest Z-Wave version is the 700 series, which supports data rates of up to 100 kbps and offers backward compatibility with previous Z-Wave versions and profiles. Z-Wave 700 series also introduces new features, such as extended battery life, increased range, and enhanced security. How is Z-Wave different than Zigbee? Find out in this Spiceworks article (2022): Zigbee vs. Z-wave: Key Differences (spiceworks.com).

Ultra-Wideband (UWB)

• High data rates of up to 1 Gbps within a 10-meter radius, which is suitable for wireless personal area network (WPAN) applications, such as streaming video, audio, and data
• Low power consumption with very short pulses of radio waves and the ability to switch between active and idle modes to save battery life
• High precision with nanosecond accuracy, which determines the distance and angle of arrival of the signals with centimeter accuracy
• Enhanced spatial resolution and range with multiple antennas and channels
• Robustness with frequency-hopping and adaptive techniques, and less jamming and eavesdropping through using encryption and authentication methods.

Some applications of UWB include real-time location tracking, geofencing, secure digital vehicle keys, and smart home devices such as lights, thermostats, and security systems, by using gestures and voice commands.

Near-field communication (NFC) is a wireless technology that enables communication between two electronic devices over a distance of 4 cm (1.57 in) or less. NFC offers a low-speed connection through a simple setup that can be used to bootstrap more capable wireless connections. NFC is based on existing radio-frequency identification (RFID) standards, such as ISO/IEC 14443 and FeliCa, and uses the 13.56 MHz frequency band to transmit data and voice signals at data rates ranging from 106 to 848 kbit/s. NFC devices can also communicate in different modes, such as point-to-point, broadcast, and mesh, depending on their roles and capabilities, and is compatible with the Internet Protocol (IP).

NFC has various applications in different domains, such as contactless transactions, data exchange, and simplified setup of more complex communications, such as Wi-Fi. NFC can also provide high-precision location tracking and secure digital keys for automotive and smart home devices. NFC is promoted and standardized by the NFC Forum, which certifies device compliance and interoperability. NFC is also supported by the GSMA group, which defines a platform for the deployment of NFC standards within mobile handsets. To learn more about NFC, visit the NFC Forum’s website: https://nfc-forum.org/.

Comparison of Wireless WPAN Performace

The performance of a WPAN can be measured in terms of data coding efficiency, transmission time, and power handling capabilities. A comparison has been made with respect to transmission time, data coding efficiency and power handling of four short-range wireless communication technologies namely, Bluetooth, ZigBee Ultra-wideband, and Wi-Fi.

Wireless technology	Bluetooth	Zigbee	Wi-Fi	UWB
Time of bits (μs)	4	802.15.1	0.01825	0.009
Data rate (M bitss)	0.72	0.25	54	110
Maximum data size	339 (DH5)	102	2312	2044
Maximum overhead size	1588	31	58	42
Code efficiency %	94.41	76.52	97.18	97.94

Table 12-1: Comparison of WPAN technologies

Mubashar, R., Siddique, M.A.B., Rehman, A.U. et al. Comparative performance analysis of short-range wireless protocols for wireless personal area network. Iran J Comput Sci 4, 201–210 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42044-021-00087-1.

For another comparison of short-range wireless technologies, watch this Automate Your Life video (2021) [48:36]

Source: S. Cao, X. Chen, and B. Yuan, “Overview of Short-range Wireless Communication Protocols,” in 2022 7th International Conference on Computer and Communication Systems (ICCCS), Apr. 2022, pp. 519–523. doi: 10.1109/ICCCS55155.2022.9846125. Available: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9846125.

AIOT (Artificial Intelligence of Things) merges AI’s data analysis and learning capabilities with wireless technologies and IoT’s connectivity and data-gathering features. This integration enhances data processing, decision-making, and automation in various applications, such as smart homes, healthcare, and industrial automation. For example, in smart homes, AIOT can optimize energy usage by learning residents’ habits and adjusting settings accordingly. In healthcare, AIOT devices can monitor patients in real-time, providing critical data for early diagnosis and personalized treatment plans. Industrial automation benefits from AIOT by enabling predictive maintenance and improving operational efficiency through real-time data analysis.

However, implementing AIOT comes with challenges such as ensuring data privacy, security, and the need for robust infrastructure. Data privacy is a significant concern as AIOT systems collect vast amounts of personal data, necessitating stringent security measures to protect against breaches. Additionally, the development of standards and frameworks is crucial for ensuring interoperability and scalability of AIOT systems. This involves creating protocols that allow different devices and systems to communicate seamlessly. While AIOT holds great promise for creating smarter, more efficient environments, careful planning and management are essential to address its complexities and maximize its potential.

Source: Seng KP, Ang LM, Ngharamike E. Artificial intelligence Internet of Things: A new paradigm of distributed sensor networks. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks. 2022;18(3). doi:10.1177/15501477211062835.