Glossary
Access Port: In VLANs, a switch port configured for a single, untagged VLAN.
Acknowledgment Policy: A congestion control mechanism that sends feedback from the receiver to the sender about the status of received packets, either positive (acknowledgment) or negative (negative acknowledgment or retransmission request).
ACK (Acknowledgment) (TCP Handshake): The third step in the TCP three-way handshake, where the client sends a TCP packet back to the server with the ACK flag set, acknowledging the server’s SYN number and establishing the connection.
Admission Policy: A congestion control mechanism that controls the entry of new packets into the network based on the availability of network resources, such as bandwidth or buffer space, to prevent congestion before it occurs.
Ad-hoc Network: A wireless network mode that does not require a set infrastructure; each node can communicate directly with other nodes, handling routing internally5. Suitable for quick, temporary peer-to-peer networks.
Administrative Distance: A value used by routers to define a tiebreaker between different sources of routing information (e.g., different routing protocols) when populating a routing table.
AIoT (Artificial Intelligence of Things): An integration that merges AI’s data analysis and learning capabilities with wireless technologies and IoT’s connectivity and data-gathering features, enhancing data processing, decision-making, and automation.
ALOHA: A random-access protocol where devices transmit data whenever they have something to send, without sensing the channel or waiting for an acknowledgment. It is simple but has low efficiency and high collision probability.
Amplitude Modulation (AM): A modulation technique where the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal to carry information.
Analog Encoding: A method of encoding that involves transmitting data as continuous signals that vary in amplitude, frequency, or phase, often used for representing natural phenomena like sound or light.
Anycast Address: An IPv6 address that identifies multiple interfaces, but where the packet is delivered to only one address, typically the first one found in terms of routing distance.
Application Layer: The topmost layer in both the OSI and Internet models, encompassing all mechanisms and data structures necessary for applications, dealing directly with Service Data Units (SDUs) and providing services like email, file transfer, and web browsing.
Application-Level Protocol: A set of syntactic and semantic rules (e.g., grammar using Backus-Naur Form) that define the format and ordering of messages exchanged between clients and servers at the application layer to ensure mutual understanding.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): A fundamental protocol operating at the data link layer that finds the physical MAC address associated with a given IP address on the same network, enabling devices to encapsulate data into Ethernet frames for local communication.
ARP Cache (ARP Table): A table maintained by each host on a network that stores mappings between IP addresses and link-level addresses (MAC addresses), which are periodically timed out and removed.
ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency): A U.S. government agency (later DARPA) that was a center of computing research in the 1960s and initiated the development of the ARPANET, the precursor to the Internet.
Asynchronous Communication Protocols: Protocols that do not rely on strict clock synchronization, suitable for scenarios where real-time interaction is not required. They use a start bit and stop bit mechanism to frame data for transmission.
Attenuation: The reduction in signal strength as it travels through a transmission medium.
Authoritative Server (DNS): A DNS server that hosts a zone (a portion of the DNS namespace) and can answer queries for any name in its zone directly, without contacting other servers.
Backbone Network: A robust, high-capacity network that interconnects lower-speed distribution channels or clusters of dispersed user devices, connecting multiple networks (e.g., LANs, other backbone networks, WANs) and allowing them to communicate and exchange information.
Background Listening: A feature in smart speakers, phones, or tablets where the device continuously listens for an activation word (e.g., “Alexa,” “Siri”) to execute voice commands, with potential implications for privacy due to logging of conversations.
Bandwidth: In the data link layer, it represents the maximum capacity of radio frequencies in a communication channel. Bandwidth is the width of the frequency band, measured in Hz; higher spectral bandwidth enables higher data‑rates (bps.
Base Station (BS) / Cell Tower: The basic unit of a cellular network that serves each cell, containing antennas and transceivers to facilitate communication with mobile devices and allowing efficient frequency reuse.
Binary Feedback (Congestion Control): A simple and efficient way of sending information from the network to users about the congestion level. It can be either explicit (network explicitly signals congestion) or implicit (users infer congestion from network behavior like packet losses or delays).
Bit: The smallest unit of information, representing one digit, either a 1 or a 0.
Bit Stuffing: A framing technique that reserves a special bit string (01111110) as a frame boundary marker and ensures that this pattern does not appear inside the frame by inserting an additional bit set to 0 after each sequence of five consecutive 1 bits.
Bluetooth: A short-range wireless technology (2.4 GHz unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) frequency band) that allows devices to communicate over short distances (typically up to 10m) using low-power radio waves. It uses frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and adaptive frequency-hopping (AFH) to avoid interference.
Bluetooth Classic: The original version, supporting data rates up to 3 Mbps, mainly used for streaming audio and data transfer.
Bluetooth Low Energy (LE): A newer version, designed for low power consumption and long battery life, mainly used for device communication and positioning. Bluetooth 5 (LE) doubles the on‑air rate to 2 Mbps and increases range with LE‑Coded modes; Classic EDR remains 3 Mbps.
Bluetooth 5: The latest version, offering extended range and broadcast capacity, with new features like direction finding.
BNF (Backus-Naur Form): A notation used to define the grammar for character strings in application-level protocols, specifying rules and formats (syntax) for message exchange.
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): The single interdomain routing protocol used by the Internet. It is a path-vector protocol that announces IP prefixes and the AS Path (sequence of autonomous systems) used to reach them and uses incremental updates.
Bridge: A networking hardware device that operates at the data link layer, connecting two network segments and intelligently forwarding data (frames) based on MAC addresses.
Broadband Access: An Internet connection defined as having speeds of at least 256,000 bits per second (bps), though modern connections are typically much faster (megabits or gigabits per second), usually accomplished via cable television lines, phone lines (DSL), or fiber optic cables.
Broadcast Address: An IP address used by applications and hosts to send information to all nodes on a network (e.g., 255.255.255.255).
Broadcast Domain: A logical network segment where all devices share the same broadcast traffic44. Routers are used to divide broadcast domains.
Browser: A software application used to access and navigate the World Wide Web. Examples include Chrome, Edge, Firefox, and Safari.
Bus Topology: A network topology where each device is connected to a single shared cable that runs through the entire network, acting as a shared medium47. It is cheap and easy to install but has low security, low speed, high possibility of collisions, and difficulty in troubleshooting.
Byte: A unit of digital information consisting of 8 bits.
Carrier Aggregation: A technique used in LTE and beyond to combine multiple frequency bands, increasing the overall bandwidth and data throughput available to users in cellular networks.
Cell: The basic geographical unit of a cellular network, each served by a base station.
Cellular Technologies: Wireless communication systems that use cellular networks to connect mobile devices and data terminals, providing long-range wireless networking. They have evolved through generations (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G, 6G).
Centralized Network Model: A network model where data and control are concentrated in one node or a group of nodes that have the authority to make decisions for the entire network. It offers greater control and consistency but has low fault-tolerance, scalability, and autonomy.
Channel (Wireless): A subset of a frequency band with a defined center frequency and bandwidth, used for wireless communication.
Character Stuffing (Byte Stuffing): A framing technique primarily used in software-based data link layers that operates on frames containing characters, inserting an additional DLE (Data Link Escape) character after each transmitted DLE character to prevent markers from appearing within the data.
Checksum: A simple error detection scheme computed as an arithmetic sum of all the bytes in a frame (or segment header and data), used by the sender and verified by the receiver to detect corruption.
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing): An addressing scheme that replaced classful addressing by allowing flexible assignment of network and host portions of an IP address using a subnet mask (e.g., /24 notation), improving the efficiency of IP address allocation.
Cipher Suite (TLS): An ASCII string that represents the negotiated key exchange algorithm, encryption scheme (with key size and mode of operation), and authentication algorithm for a TLS session.
Cisco Packet Tracer: A software tool used for hands-on activities to explore network traffic packet analysis, error control, subnetting, and wireless/wired network design.
Client/Server Model: A well-known and intuitive architectural style for building computer systems, where a centralized server receives requests for service and responds accordingly to clients.
Cloud Computing: A paradigm involving the delivery of computing services—including servers, storage, databases, networking, software, analytics, and intelligence—over the Internet (known as “the cloud”) to offer faster innovation, flexible resources, and economies of scale63. It typically relies on a distributed network of servers.
Cloud Edge Network: A type of distributed system that combines cloud computing with edge computing, extending cloud capabilities to distributed infrastructures across multiple sites and networks.
CLOSE-WAIT State (TCP Termination): A transient state during TCP connection termination where the receiver has received a FIN segment from the sender and acknowledged it but is still waiting for the local application to close its end of the connection.
Coaxial Cable: A type of electrical cable used in the Physical Layer for data transmission, historically in cable TV networks.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): A medium access control algorithm where each user or device is assigned a unique code that modulates its data signal, allowing signals from different users to be transmitted simultaneously over the same channel and separated at the receiver using corresponding codes.
Coding Schemes: Functions that add redundancy to transmitted information, mapping a source string of M bits into a longer string of N bits, to allow the receiver to detect or sometimes correct transmission errors.
Collision: Occurs when two or more devices try to send data at the same time on a shared transmission medium in a LAN, causing the signals to interfere and frames to be undecodable.
Collision Domain: A network segment where devices compete for access to the shared medium, and simultaneous transmissions can result in collisions.
Congestion Collapse: A phenomenon that occurs when a network becomes overloaded with too many packets, resulting in severe degradation of network performance characterized by high delays, low throughput, and high packet losses.
Congestion Control: A set of mechanisms (e.g., window policy, discarding policy, acknowledgment policy, admission policy) aiming to prevent or reduce the negative effects of network congestion, which occurs when demand for network resources exceeds available capacity.
Connection-Oriented Service: A transport layer service (like TCP) that establishes a reliable, dedicated connection between two devices through a multi-phase process (connection establishment, data transfer, connection termination) before transmitting data, ensuring ordered and error-free delivery.
Connectionless Service: A transport layer service (like UDP) that sends data without establishing a prior connection or “handshake.” It is generally unreliable as it does not guarantee delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection, but often has lower latency.
Control Plane: One of the two planes of operation in the network layer (the other being the data plane). It is responsible for determining the “best” routing and path configuration using routing protocols.
CRC (Cyclical Redundancy Check): A powerful error detection scheme widely used in data link layer protocols and file formats (like zip), which can detect errors affecting bursts of bits and an odd number of bits in transmitted frames.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access): A medium access control algorithm that improves upon ALOHA by requiring nodes to listen to the transmission channel to verify it is free before transmitting a frame.
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): A stochastic MAC algorithm used in wireless networks that aims to avoid collisions by allowing devices to reserve the transmission channel for a period using control frames like Request To Send (RTS) and Clear To Send (CTS).
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): A stochastic MAC algorithm used in Ethernet networks. Devices sense the channel and, if a collision is detected during transmission, they immediately stop and send a special jamming signal to ensure all hosts detect the collision.
Data Link Layer: The second layer of the OSI model, which facilitates communication between hosts (network devices) by managing the transmission of data frames over a shared physical medium between directly connected devices within the same local network segment. Its key functions include framing, addressing, and error detection/correction.
Data Plane (Forwarding Plane): One of the two planes of operation in the network layer. It performs tasks such as receiving and inspecting packets, forwarding them to the correct destination, and queuing network packets during congestion.
Datagram (Packet): The general term for a unit of data exchanged in the network layer. It contains source and destination information and typically passes through several intermediate routers from its source to its destination. It usually consists of a header and a payload.
Decentralized Network Model: A network model where data and control are distributed among multiple nodes or groups of nodes, with each having some authority to make decisions for itself or its group. It typically operates on a peer-to-peer architecture, offering resilience and scalability but with higher complexity and coordination costs.
Default-Deny Firewall Ruleset: A standard security practice for firewalls where only network connections that have been explicitly allowed are permitted, and all others are blocked by default.
Deterministic MAC Algorithms (Pessimistic MAC Algorithms): A family of medium access control algorithms that assume collisions are a severe problem and must be completely avoided. They ensure that only one device is allowed to send a frame on the LAN at any given time, usually through a distributed election process. Examples include FDMA, TDMA, and Token Ring.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): An application layer protocol used to allow new clients on a network to obtain an IP address and information about provided services (e.g., subnet mask, default gateway, DNS server)9495. The process involves DHCPDISCOVER, DHCPOFFER, DHCPREQUEST, and DHCPACK messages.
Dial-up Access: Older connection type to the Internet via a modem over an analog telephone line, characterized by slow speeds (e.g., 1200 bps to 56,000 bps) and tying up the phone line.
Digital Divide: The separation between those who have access to global networks (Internet, computing devices) and those who do not, which can occur between countries, regions, or even neighborhoods9899. Jakob Nielsen’s three stages are the economic divide, usability divide, and empowerment divide.
Digital Encoding: The process at the physical layer of converting digital data (binary 1s and 0s) into signals (e.g., electrical pulses for copper cables, light patterns for fiber optics, radio waves for wireless) that can be transmitted over a physical medium.
Discarding Policy: A congestion control mechanism that drops or rejects packets when the channel or buffer is full, preventing buffer overflow and reducing congestion.
Distance Vector Protocol: A type of dynamic routing protocol where routers do not need to know the whole path to a destination, only the direction (vector) to send a packet (i.e., the next hop)103. They periodically advertise their entire routing tables, which can create overhead103. RIP is an example.
Distributed Network Model: A network configuration where data and control are dispersed among many independent nodes, fostering collaboration for data sharing and shared objectives. It combines elements of client/server and peer-to-peer architectures, mitigating bottlenecks and single points of failure.
DNS (Domain Name System): An application layer service used to resolve human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) to their corresponding numeric IP addresses. It organizes names in a hierarchical tree structure with top-level domains (TLDs).
DNS Resolution: The process of finding the IP address of a host based on its domain name. It typically involves querying a local cache, a primary DNS server, root servers, TLD servers, and authoritative nameservers.
DNSSEC (Domain Name System Security Extensions): A suite of extension specifications designed to authenticate responses to domain name lookups, helping prevent Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attacks by checking the digital signature of the responding server.
Domain Name: A human-readable name (e.g., www.example.com) that identifies a host on a network, resolved to an IP address by the DNS.
Downlink (Satellite): Communication path from a satellite in orbit to a ground station or user terminal on Earth.
Dynamic NAT: A flavor of NAT designed to map an unregistered IP address to a registered IP address from a pool of available public IP addresses.
Dynamic Routing: A method of automatically learning and updating routes from neighboring routers using routing protocols, providing more scalability and adaptability than static routing.
Edge Computing: A distributed computing paradigm that brings computation and data storage closer to the location where data is generated or needed (the “edge” of the network), improving response times and saving bandwidth.
EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): An advanced distance-vector routing protocol designed by Cisco Systems, used for automating routing decisions and configuration, known for fast convergence and loop-free routing.
Electrical Cable: A type of physical media used in computer networks for data transmission, including twisted pair and coaxial cable.
Email Protocols: Protocols used for sending and retrieving email messages.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Used to retrieve email from a server, supporting saving mail on the server and organizing it into folders; defaults to TCP port 143 (or 993 with TLS).
POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3): A more primitive protocol for retrieving email, typically retrieving messages and deleting them from the server; defaults to TCP port 110 (or 995 with TLS).
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending/forwarding email messages, often across different SMTP servers; uses TCP on port 25 (or 587 with TLS).
Encoding: The process of converting digital or analog information into a specific format suitable for transmission over a communication channel.
Ethernet: The most widely used LAN protocol, defining how devices communicate with each other on the network using a specific frame format. It historically used CSMA/CD86.
Fairness (Network Efficiency): An objective for resource sharing schemes in networks, often defined by max-min fairness, ensuring that no flow’s bandwidth can be increased without reducing that of a flow already allocated less bandwidth.
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access): A static allocation method for medium access control algorithms where each user or device is assigned a fixed, non-overlapping frequency band in which it can transmit data, avoiding collisions by dividing the channel into distinct frequency ranges.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A text-based application layer protocol for sending files between machines, traditionally using TCP on port 21 and establishing two channels (one for control, one for data).
FIN-WAIT-1 State (TCP Termination): The first phase of the TCP connection termination process, where the endpoint wishing to close the connection sends a TCP segment with the FIN flag set and then waits for an acknowledgment from the other endpoint.
FIN-WAIT-2 State (TCP Termination): A transient state during TCP connection termination where the sender has received the ACK for its FIN and is waiting for the receiver to send its own FIN to close the connection.
Firewall: A security device or set of devices (hardware, software, both) configured to permit, deny, encrypt, decrypt, or proxy computer traffic between different security domains based on a set of rules, often used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks.
Firmware: Embedded software that controls the hardware of a device. Keeping it updated is crucial for security, as updates often fix vulnerabilities.
Flow Control (TCP): Mechanisms included in TCP to prevent the sender from overwhelming the receiver with data, typically by the receiver advertising a receive window size in its acknowledgments.
Fog Computing: A decentralized computing infrastructure that places storage, computation, and communication between the data source and the cloud. It extends cloud computing by using fog nodes to process data from devices (like IoT sensors) locally, reducing latency and saving bandwidth by only sending important data to the cloud.
Frame: The unit of information transfer in the data link layer, defined as a finite sequence of bits with a particular syntax or structure.
Framing Problem: The challenge of “How does a sender encode frames so that the receiver can efficiently extract them from the stream of bits that it receives from the physical layer“.
Frequency (Radio Wave): The number of cycles a radio wave completes in one second, measured in hertz (Hz). Lower frequencies travel farther and penetrate obstacles better but carry less information, while higher frequencies carry more information but have shorter range.
Frequency Band (Wireless): A range of frequencies that have similar characteristics and are allocated for specific purposes (e.g., 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz bands for Wi-Fi).
Frequency Modulation (FM): A modulation technique where the frequency of the carrier signal is varied based on the amplitude of the modulating signal to represent information.
FHSS (Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum): A technique used by Bluetooth to avoid interference and increase security by dividing data into packets and hopping between multiple channels at a rapid rate.
Full Mesh Topology: A network topology where every host is directly connected to every other host in the network. It offers the highest reliability and performance but requires a large number of links and interfaces, making it impractical for large networks.
Gbps (Gigabits per second): A unit of bit rate, representing one billion bits per second.
Global Unicast Address (IPv6): The typical publicly routable IPv6 addresses, analogous to public IPv4 addresses.
Ground Station (Satellite): A component of a satellite communication system that utilizes radar to track satellites and confirm their location and path over the Earth’s surface and sends/receives signals to/from satellites.
Handovers (Handoff): In cellular networks, the process by which an ongoing call or data session is transferred to a new base station when a mobile user moves from one cell to another.
Header (Packet/Datagram): The part of a packet or datagram that contains overhead information about the packet, the service, and other transmission-related data (e.g., source/destination addresses, sequence numbers).
Hexadecimal: A number system with base 16, using digits 0-9 and A-F, commonly used to represent MAC addresses and IPv6 addresses.
Hop Count: A routing metric that measures the number of routers (hops) along a path to reach a destination. Older routing protocols like RIP use this.
Host Address: See Node Address.
Hotspot: A physical location where users can access the Internet, typically using Wi-Fi with a laptop or mobile device.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): A text-based application layer protocol that governs the movement of web traffic and is the foundation of any data exchange on the World Wide Web. Clients send requests (e.g., GET) and servers send responses with a status code142. Unencrypted HTTP uses port 80.
HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): A secure version of HTTP that wraps HTTP requests in TLS for encryption and authentication. It uses TCP port 443 and is typically indicated by a lock icon in browsers.
Hub: A basic networking hardware device that connects computers in a star topology. It operates at the physical layer and lacks intelligence, increasing the chances of collisions.
Hybrid Port (VLAN): A type of VLAN port that allows for both device connections (like an access port) and trunking (like a trunk port), often used for wireless access points.
Hybrid Topology: A network topology that combines two or more basic topologies (e.g., star and bus networks) to form a more complex network configuration, aiming for a balance between cost, scalability, and resilience.
Hypertext: Linked text within the World Wide Web that allows users to easily navigate between different pieces of information.
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority): The organization responsible for maintaining registries of various Internet parameters, including assigned PPP protocol fields and well-known port numbers.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): A network layer protocol used for diagnostics and network management, sending messages like Echo Request and Echo Reply (used by ping), Destination Unreachable, and Time Exceeded (used by traceroute).
IEEE 802.11 Standards: A family of standards developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) that define the specifications for Wi-Fi (wireless LAN) technologies, including various versions (e.g., 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ad/ah/ax/be) with different frequency bands, throughputs, and ranges151152. They are backward compatible.
Infrastructure Mode (Wireless): A wireless network mode that requires a physical structure (e.g., wireless access points, cellular base stations) to support communication between wireless nodes and the network.
Interdomain Routing Protocols (Exterior Gateway Protocols – EGP): Routing protocols that distribute aggregated routing information between different autonomous systems (domains), treating each domain as a black box for scalability reasons.
Interference (Wireless): Unwanted signals that disrupt or degrade wireless communication. Minimizing interference is crucial for transmission quality.
Internet: An interconnected global network of networks that enables communication and data exchange among millions of devices worldwide. It supports various services beyond the World Wide Web, such as electronic mail, voice and video, and file transfers.
Internet Backbone: The most well-known example of a backbone network, historically rooted in NSFNET, providing the high-speed data links that enable data to be transmitted quickly and efficiently between different parts of the Internet.
Internet Model (TCP/IP Model): See OSI Model (Internet Model / TCP/IP Model).
Intradomain Routing Protocols (Interior Gateway Protocols – IGP): Routing protocols that distribute routing information within a single autonomous system (domain). Their objectives are typically to find the shortest path between routers in the domain and to quickly recover from link and router failures155. Examples include RIP, OSPF, and EIGRP.
IoT (Internet of Things): A concept where physical objects are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies to connect and exchange data with other devices and systems over the Internet. It benefits significantly from edge computing for localized data processing.
IP Address: A numeric identifier assigned to each machine (host or router) on an IP network, designating the specific location of a device and enabling communication between nodes.
IP Datagram: The specific term for a packet as defined by the Internet Protocol (IP). It is a crucial component of the TCP/IP suite, containing information about the source and destination of the data for transmission across the Internet.
IPv4 Addressing: The addressing scheme for Internet Protocol Version 4, using 32-bit IP addresses divided into four octets (e.g., 172.20.18.125), which are classified into classes (A, B, C, D, E) based on network size.
IPv4 Classes (Class A, B, C, D, E): Historical classifications of IPv4 addresses based on network size.
Class A: For very large networks, first octet 1-126, default subnet mask 255.0.0.0.
Class B: For medium-sized networks, first octet 128-191, default subnet mask 255.255.0.0.
Class C: For numerous small networks, first octet 192-223, default subnet mask 255.255.255.0.
Class D: Reserved for multicast purposes.
Class E: Reserved for experimental purposes.
IPv6 Addressing (Internet Protocol Version 6): A newer 128-bit addressing scheme designed to provide an almost unlimited number of IP addresses, utilizing hexadecimal notation in eight 16-bit fields, often truncated for readability.
ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) Band: License-free radio frequency bands (e.g., 2.4 GHz) used by technologies like Bluetooth and Zigbee.
Jamming Signal: A special signal sent by an Ethernet host after detecting a collision to ensure that all other hosts on the cable also detect the collision.
Jitter: A variation in the delay of received packets, which can impact the quality of real-time communication.
LAN (Local Area Network): A network of devices connected together in a limited physical area, such as a home, office, or school. LANs allow devices to share resources and can use technologies like Ethernet cables and Wi-Fi.
Latency: The time it takes for a signal or data packet to travel from the sender to the receiver. Lower latency is crucial for real-time applications.
LAST-ACK State (TCP Termination): A transient state during TCP connection termination where the sender has received the receiver’s FIN and sent its final ACK, effectively closing the connection.
LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol): An application layer protocol used for accessing and maintaining directory information services, primarily associated with Windows Active Directory. It uses TCP and UDP over port 389 (or TCP port 636 for LDAPS).
Leased Line: A dedicated and secure point-to-point connection that connects two LANs or end nodes in a WAN environment, providing customized network performance.
Link-Local Address (IPv6): IPv6 addresses similar to private addresses in IPv4, intended for non-routing purposes and suitable for temporary LANs.
Link-State Protocol: A type of dynamic routing protocol where each router builds a complete topological map of the network (including all routers and links) and uses algorithms (e.g., shortest path first) to select the best path175. It advertises only changes to the topology via multicast175. An example is OSPF.
LoRa (Long Range): A proprietary radio technique designed for IoT devices, enabling bi-directional communication, end-to-end security, mobility, and localization services over a large portion of the radio spectrum.
LoRaWAN: A networking protocol and system architecture (an ITU standard) for LoRa devices, managed by the LoRa Alliance, enabling devices to connect to the Internet in regional, national, or global networks.
Loopback Address (IPv4): The IP address 127.x.x.x (most commonly 127.0.0.1), used to test the connectivity of a device with itself without sending traffic onto the network.
LRLP (Long Range Low Power) Wireless Networks: Wireless networks that utilize microwave, radio wave, and satellite communication to provide connectivity over long ranges with low power consumption, often used for IoT applications.
MAC Address (Media Access Control Address): A unique, six-byte (48-bit) hardware-encoded identifier assigned to a network interface controller (NIC) for local communication between devices on a network segment.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A computer network that is larger than a single building LAN but smaller than a WAN, typically covering a single geographic area ranging from 5 to 50 kilometers, often used to connect several LANs together.
Manual Allocation (DHCP): An address allocation mechanism where a specific IP address is pre-allocated to a single device by an administrator, and the DHCP server only communicates this pre-assigned IP address to the requesting device.
Max-min Fairness: The most widely used definition of fairness in resource allocation, where a bandwidth allocation is considered max-min fair if it’s impossible to allocate more bandwidth to one flow without reducing the bandwidth of another flow that already has a smaller allocation.
Maximum Segment Lifetime (MSL): A limit enforced by the network layer to ensure that no packet remains in the network for more than a specified time (e.g., 2 minutes for TCP on the Internet), preventing delayed segments from being processed incorrectly.
Mbps (Megabits per second): A unit of bit rate, representing one million bits per second.
Media Converters: Simple networking hardware devices that enable the connection of two dissimilar media types, such as twisted pair with fiber optic cabling, useful for extending the reach of a LAN.
Medium Access Control (MAC) Algorithms: Algorithms used in LAN technologies to regulate transmissions to either minimize or avoid collisions on shared communication channels92. They fall into two broad families: deterministic and stochastic.
Metcalfe’s Law: A law describing the power of networking, stating that the value of a telecommunications network is proportional to the square of the number of connected users of the system.
Microwave Relay Networks: Networks that use a series of microwave antennas to transmit signals over long distances, typically operating in the frequency range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
Microwave Technologies: Wireless technologies that utilize microwave frequencies for communication, including WiMAX, microwave relay networks, and microwave power transmission.
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): A technology used in modern cellular networks that employs multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve communication performance by enhancing data rates and reliability through spatial diversity and multiplexing.
Mobile Internet: The process of accessing the Internet through a mobile device (e.g., smartphone, tablet, Wi-Fi hotspot) via a phone carrier’s network, Wi-Fi, or other wireless connections.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): A crucial component of a cellular network that connects calls by routing them through the network, managing communication between base stations and interfacing with other networks like the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and the Internet.
Modem (Modulator-Demodulator): A device that converts digital signals (1s and 0s) from a computer into analog sounds that can be transmitted over telephone lines, and vice versa.
Modulation: The process of converting digital or analog information into a suitable electrical signal for transmission over a physical link, typically by modifying a carrier signal’s properties (amplitude, frequency, or phase).
MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching): A network layer routing technique that directs data from one node to the next based on labels rather than network addresses. It aims to improve the speed and control of network traffic.
Multicast Address: An IP address that represents a group of devices in a network, with packets addressed to it being delivered to all interfaces identified by that address.
NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT): A cellular technology based on the LTE standard that uses licensed spectrum to provide low-power and wide-area connectivity specifically for IoT devices, suitable for applications requiring low latency, high availability, and long battery life.
NFC (Near-Field Communication): A short-range wireless technology that enables communication between two electronic devices over a very short distance (4 cm or less), offering low-speed connections for contactless transactions, data exchange, and simplified setup. It is based on existing RFID standards.
Network Address: The portion of an IP address that uniquely identifies a network. All machines on the same network share this address.
Network Capacity (Node Capacity): The packet processing capacity of network nodes (routers or switches), measured in bits per second (overall data rate) and packets per second (lookup performance).
Network Interface Card (NIC): A hardware component that allows a computer or device to connect to a network.
Network Layer: The third layer of the OSI model (and the Internet model), built above the data link layer. Its primary function is to enable the transmission of information (datagrams or packets) between hosts that are not directly connected, typically through intermediate routers.
Network Segmentation: The process of dividing a larger network into smaller, isolated sub-networks or subnets to improve network performance, security, and manageability.
Network Slicing (5G): A 5G cellular technology feature that allows the creation of multiple virtual networks on a shared physical infrastructure, with each “slice” tailored to specific applications or services to optimize performance and resource allocation.
Network Topology: The arrangement of the devices and links that constitute a network. It can be defined by its physical design (how devices are physically connected) or its logical design (how data is transmitted or routed).
Networking: Refers specifically to the systems and technologies used to interconnect devices, enabling them to share data, communicate, and access resources within local or global infrastructures. It emphasizes the structure, protocols, and tools for creating and managing these connections.
Node Address: Also referred to as a host address, this is the portion of an IP address that is assigned to and uniquely identifies each individual machine on a network.
Node Buffers: Memory spaces within network nodes (like routers or switches) that temporarily store incoming or outgoing packets. They help to smooth out traffic fluctuations and manage mismatches between input and output link speeds, but if they overflow, packets may be discarded.
Nonce: A random number used only once in a communication (e.g., during a TLS handshake) to help prevent replay attacks.
Octet: An 8-bit binary number, commonly used as a term for a byte in the context of IP addresses.
Optical Fiber: A type of physical media frequently used in public and enterprise networks for data transmission over long distances (kilometers to tens of kilometers) by converting information into light signals.
OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection model): A conceptual, seven-layer reference model that standardizes network communication. Its layers, from bottom to top, are: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A widely used link-state routing protocol standardized by the IETF. It is frequently used in enterprise networks and supports hierarchical routing by dividing the network into areas to manage information distribution.
Packet: The general term for a unit of data exchanged at various network layers, particularly the network layer. See also Datagram.
Packet Loss: A condition where data packets fail to reach their intended destination, often due to network congestion or errors, leading to reduced network performance.
Parity Coding (Even/Odd Parity): A simple coding scheme that adds an extra bit (the parity bit) to a binary string. This bit is chosen so that the total number of 1s in the coded string is either even or odd, allowing the detection of a single transmission error.
Path-Vector Protocol: A type of routing protocol (e.g., BGP) where a router advertises an IP prefix along with the interdomain path (the sequence of Autonomous Systems – AS Path) used to reach that prefix.
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model: An architectural style where participating entities take turns acting as both clients and servers, allowing any node to communicate with any other. It scales well but can be more difficult to administer and secure.
Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS): An important property for key exchange protocols (e.g., in TLS) that guarantees that the keys used for former sessions will not be compromised even if the server’s private key is compromised in the future.
Personal Area Network (PAN): A type of network typically formed by Bluetooth devices, allowing short-range data and voice communication between devices like smartphones and headphones.
Phase Modulation (PM): A modulation technique where the phase of the carrier signal is changed in response to the input signal to represent transmitted data.
Physical Layer: The first and lowest layer of the OSI and Internet models, responsible for the physical transmission of raw data bits over a physical medium (e.g., electrical cables, optical fiber, wireless signals) between directly connected devices. It is inherently unreliable.
Physical Media: The actual material or channel through which information is transmitted in a network. Common types include electrical cables, optical fiber, and wireless signals.
Ping Command: A network utility that uses ICMP Echo Request and Echo Reply messages to test the connectivity between two devices and measure the round-trip time for packets.
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): A family of three protocols (Point-to-Point Protocol, Link Control Protocol, and Network Control Protocol) used to transport IP packets over various types of serial lines, including dedicated physical cables.
Port Number: A 16-bit integer value (0-65535) used in the transport layer to specify which service or application on a host a connection should connect to, allowing a single host to run multiple services simultaneously.
Well-known Ports: Port numbers 0 through 1023, reserved for common services and often requiring administrative privileges to bind.
IANA-registered Ports: Port numbers 1024 through 49151, not requiring administrative privileges.
Dynamic Ports (Ephemeral Ports): Port numbers 49152 through 65535, not officially designated for specific services and used by software to dynamically create communication endpoints.
Private Address (IPv4): IPv4 addresses (ranges: 10.x.x.x, 172.16.x.x-172.31.x.x, 192.168.x.x) that are not routable on the Internet and can only be used within a private network or behind a router that performs Network Address Translation (NAT).
Private WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) that is owned and operated by a single organization, often used by large organizations to connect multiple geographically distant locations securely and reliably.
Public WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) that is owned and operated by a third-party service provider, such as the Internet itself.
QUIC (Quick UDP Internet Connections): QUIC is a modern transport protocol developed by Google and standardized by the IETF. Running over UDP, it integrates TLS 1.3 encryption, reduces connection setup time with 0-RTT support, and improves reliability and performance compared to traditional TCP + TLS. It is the foundation of HTTP/3.
Radio (General): The oldest and most widely used form of wireless communication, encompassing various fixed, mobile, and portable applications, transmitting data and voice signals using electromagnetic waves with frequencies below 1000 MHz.
Recursive Resolver (DNS): A DNS server that acts as an intermediary between a client and authoritative servers. It follows a chain of referrals (from root nameserver to TLD server to authoritative server) to resolve a domain name and returns the IP address to the client.
Reliable Data Transfer: Techniques employed in layers like the data link layer and transport layer to ensure that data is transmitted correctly and completely, often involving mechanisms for error detection, error correction, flow control, and retransmission.
Repeater: A device that regenerates an electrical or optical signal to extend the range of a physical link, used for example with optical fiber.
Retransmission Timer: A timer started by a sender when it transmits a frame or segment. If an acknowledgment is not received before the timer expires, the sender assumes the data was lost and retransmits it.
Ring Topology: A network topology where each device is connected to two other devices, forming a closed loop. Data is transmitted in one direction around the ring. While simple, a single link failure can disrupt the entire network.
RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A simple distance vector routing protocol standardized for the TCP/IP suite, which uses hop count as its metric and periodically exchanges RIP messages containing summarized routing information with neighbors.
Router: A networking hardware device that operates at the network layer of the OSI model. Its main job is to efficiently route IP packets between different local area networks (LANs), or subnets based on a routing table, effectively dividing broadcast domains.
Routing: The process of determining the optimal path across a routed network for IP packets using routing tables and routing protocols.
Routing Metric (Cost): A value used by routing protocols to define the “cost” of taking a particular path to a destination. Different protocols use different criteria (e.g., hop count, bandwidth, delay) to calculate this metric.
Routing Policy: In interdomain routing, this defines how a domain (autonomous system) accepts, advertises, and selects routes. It typically includes import filters, export filters, and a ranking algorithm.
Routing Protocol: A set of rules and procedures that routers use to exchange routing information and build routing tables, enabling them to determine optimal paths for data transmission across a network. Examples include RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, and BGP.
Routing Table: A table maintained by a router that contains the network layer intelligence needed to forward packets to remote destinations. It lists known destination networks or subnets and their corresponding next hops (the next router to send the packet to).
Round-Robin Scheduler: A very simple type of scheduler used by a router to serve multiple queues (e.g., for different traffic flows) in a cyclical fashion, aiming to fairly distribute bandwidth.
Round-Trip Time (RTT): The delay between the transmission of a data frame/packet and the reception of its corresponding acknowledgment. It’s a key factor in network performance and congestion control.
SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control): A pioneering bit-oriented, synchronous protocol developed by IBM in the 1970s. It defines a distinct frame structure with flag sequences, address/control fields, a data field, and a frame check sequence (FCS), influencing later protocols like HDLC.
SDU (Service Data Unit): A generic term used in the textbook to indicate the data exchanged between two entities of the application layer.
Secure FTP (SFTP): A secure version of FTP that uses an SSH connection to send and receive files over an encrypted channel, supporting all SSH authentication methods.
Secure Shell (SSH): The most widely deployed remote administration tool, providing access to a command-line shell via an encrypted connection. It supports various options like SOCKS5 proxies, port forwarding, and multiple authentication schemes; uses TCP on port.
Segment (Transport Layer): The unit of information transfer in the transport layer, encapsulating the SDU produced by the application layer for transmission over the network.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): The ratio of the signal power to the noise power in a communication channel. A higher SNR means clearer signals and fewer errors, enhancing accuracy.
Sigfox: A long-range wireless technology and global network service for IoT devices, using ultra-narrowband modulation in license-free sub-gigahertz radio frequency bands for low-data-rate applications.
Smart Device: A device in a smart home environment that works like its regular counterpart but also has “smart” features, allowing remote control or automation via a network (e.g., video doorbells, smart locks, smart TVs, smart lighting).
Smart Home Environment: A home integrated with connected smart devices, systems, and/or applications that can be controlled remotely or automated to enhance convenience, security, and efficiency.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): An application layer protocol used for gathering information about the workings of a network. It involves clients (using UDP port 161) sending messages to a manager (using UDP port 162). Version 3 is encrypted and requires authentication.
SOHO (Small Office/Home Office): Refers to a network environment for a small office or a home office, often involving a router and various smart devices.
Software-Defined Wide Area Network (SD-WAN): A modern approach to WAN architecture that leverages any combination of transport services (e.g., MPLS, LTE, broadband) and uses a centralized control function to steer traffic securely and intelligently. It decouples the control plane from the data plane, enhancing efficiency and flexibility.
Star Topology: A network topology where each device is connected to a central device (like a switch or hub) by a single cable. It is easy to install and manage, but the central device is a single point of failure.
Static Allocation Methods (MAC): Methods of dividing the capacity of a shared communication channel among multiple users or devices by using fixed portions (frequency bands, time slots, or codes), regardless of whether they have data to transmit. Examples include FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.
Static NAT: A flavor of NAT designed to allow a one-to-one mapping between a private (local) IP address and a public (global) IP address.
Static Routing: A method of configuring routes manually on each router in a network. These routes do not change unless a network administrator updates them, making it suitable for small and stable networks.
Stochastic MAC Algorithms (Optimistic MAC Algorithms): A family of medium access control algorithms that assume collisions are a normal part of LAN operation and can be tolerated or resolved. They aim to minimize collisions but do not try to avoid all of them, offering easier implementation and often higher throughput. Examples include CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD.
Subnet Mask: A 32-bit number (like an IP address) that has 1s in the network part and 0s in the host part. It is used by hosts and routers to identify the network, subnet, and host portions of an IP address and to determine if traffic should be sent locally or routed to a remote network.
Subnetting: The process of dividing a large network (e.g., an IPv4 class A, B, or C network) into smaller, isolated sub-networks (subnets) to manage IP addresses more efficiently and improve network performance. This is achieved by “borrowing” bits from the host portion of the IP address using a subnet mask.
Switch: A networking hardware device that operates at the data link layer. Unlike a hub, it intelligently forwards data (frames) only to the specific port where the destination system is connected, using a database of MAC addresses. It creates separate collision domains for each physical connection.
SYN (Synchronize) (TCP Handshake): The first step in the TCP three-way handshake, where the client sends a TCP packet to the server with the SYN flag set, containing a randomly generated sequence number to initiate a connection.
SYN-ACK (Synchronize-Acknowledge) (TCP Handshake): The second step in the TCP three-way handshake, where the server acknowledges the client’s SYN request by sending its own TCP packet with both SYN and ACK flags set, including an acknowledgment of the client’s sequence number and a new randomly generated sequence number for itself.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): A core connection-oriented transport protocol at the heart of most networks. It provides reliable communication by establishing a three-way handshake, breaking large data into segments, ensuring data integrity, and providing flow control and congestion control. It is slower due to these mechanisms but highly reliable.
TCP Connection Termination (Four-Way Handshake): A graceful process involving four phases to close a TCP connection after data transfer is complete, ensuring all remaining data is delivered and both sender and receiver agree to terminate the connection.
Telecommunications: A broad term encompassing the electronic transmission of information over significant distances using various technologies such as radio waves, fiber optics, and satellites. It includes all types of communication (voice, data, video) and focuses on the exchange of information across distances.
Telnet: A basic, legacy remote protocol that uses TCP on port 23, primarily for remote login services.
Three-Way Handshake (TCP): A fundamental process in TCP used to establish a reliable and orderly communication channel between two devices before they exchange data. It involves three steps: SYN, SYN-ACK, and ACK.
Throughput: A metric for network performance, indicating the actual rate at which data is successfully transmitted through a system or over a channel.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): A static allocation method for medium access control algorithms where each user or device is assigned a fixed time slot in which it can transmit data. These slots are repeated in a cycle, avoiding collisions by dividing the channel into non-overlapping time intervals.
TLD (Top-Level Domain): The highest level in the DNS hierarchical tree structure (e.g., .com, .org, .gov), managed by organizations like ICANN.
TLS (Transport Layer Security) / SSL (Secure Sockets Layer): Cryptographic protocols mainly used over the TCP protocol to provide encryption and authentication for data exchanged by application layer protocols (e.g., for HTTPS, email protocols).
TLS Handshake: The process during which the client and server negotiate the security parameters and keys that will be used to secure the data transfer in a TLS session.
Traceroute: A network diagnostic tool that uses ICMP Time Exceeded messages to trace the path that packets take across a network, showing each intermediate router (hop).
Transmission Errors: Imperfections that can occur during data transmission over a physical link, leading to alterations in bit values (e.g., random isolated errors, random burst errors) or changes in the number of bits (random bit creations and removals).
Transport Layer: The layer in the OSI and Internet models that sits above the network layer and provides services to make the network layer’s data usable by applications. It addresses issues like data corruption, loss, out-of-order delivery, limited data length, and duplication. It provides either connectionless or connection-oriented services.
Tree Topology: A network topology where multiple star networks are connected to each other by a bus network, with star networks acting as branches and the bus network as the trunk. It combines benefits of but inherits their drawbacks.
Trunk Port (VLAN): A switch port configured to carry traffic for multiple tagged VLANs over a single physical link, providing connections between VLANs on different switches.
Twisted Pair Cable: A common type of electrical cable used in the Physical Layer for data transmission, found in telephone networks and enterprise networks.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A widely used connectionless transport protocol within an IP network. It does not require a prior “handshake” to set up a channel and operates with minimum protocol mechanisms. It provides checksums and port numbers but offers no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection.
Uplink (Satellite): Communication path from a ground station or user terminal on Earth to a satellite in orbit.
UWB (Ultra-Wideband): A short-range wireless technology that operates over a broad frequency spectrum (e.g., 3.1 GHz to 10.6 GHz), known for its high data rates and precise location tracking capabilities. It’s used for applications requiring high accuracy and low latency.
User Terminal (Satellite): A receiver device (e.g., phone, tablet, specialized terminal) that continuously receives satellite signals to calculate its position, altitude, or elevation.
VLAN (Virtual LAN): A logical network concept that enables the segmentation of a single physical network into multiple virtual networks, each functioning as an independent entity. VLANs operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and are used to improve network performance, security, and scalability.
VoIP (Voice over IP): A technology that enables the transmission of voice communications over the Internet by converting analog voice signals into digital data packets for transmission.
WAN (Wide Area Network): A computer network that spans a wide geographical area, such as across cities, states, or countries. WANs typically connect multiple LANs or smaller networks that are physically distant from each other.
Wavelength (Radio Wave): The distance a radio wave travels in one cycle, measured in meters (m).
Web 2.0: The second generation of the World Wide Web, characterized by interactive and user-generated content, fostering online communities and social networking (e.g., blogs, photo-sharing sites, social media platforms).
Web 3.0 (Semantic Web): The third generation of Internet services, aiming to enable a more intelligent, connected, and decentralized web experience by integrating advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and blockchain.
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy): An early wireless security protocol for Wi-Fi networks. WEP is deprecated and can be cracked within minutes; use WPA2 or WPA3 instead.
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): A very popular wireless networking technology that converts an Internet signal into radio waves, allowing devices to connect to a network wirelessly within a certain radius. Based on IEEE 802.11 standards.
Wi‑Fi 6E (IEEE 802.11ax in 6 GHz)
Wi‑Fi 6E is an extension of Wi‑Fi 6 that operates in the 6 GHz band, offering more spectrum (up to 1.2 GHz) and reduced interference. It enables faster speeds, lower latency, and better performance in dense environments by supporting additional non-overlapping channels compared to 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands.
Wi‑Fi 7 (IEEE 802.11be, Extremely High Throughput)
Wi‑Fi 7 is the next-generation wireless standard that introduces 320 MHz channels, 4K QAM modulation, and Multi-Link Operation (MLO) across bands. It promises theoretical speeds of over 40 Gbps and ultra-low latency, making it suitable for AR/VR, gaming, and 8K video streaming.
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access): A wireless communication technology (based on IEEE 802.16 standard) that uses microwave frequencies to provide broadband access to large areas, capable of covering up to 50 km and supporting high data rates.
Wireless Access Point (WAP or AP): A device that allows wireless communication devices to connect to a wireless network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or other wireless standards. It usually connects to a wired network to relay data.
Wireless Frequency Bands: See Frequency Band (Wireless).
Wireless Networking: The broad term for technologies (like Wi-Fi) that allow devices to remain linked to a network without physical cables, using radio frequency (RF) technology to generate electromagnetic fields for communication.
Wireless Security Standards: Methods and protocols that provide authentication, encryption, and access control for wireless networks to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of wireless communication.
Wireshark: A free, open-source application used to capture and view data traveling on a network, providing detailed packet analysis and filtering capabilities. It is widely used for troubleshooting network problems and for developing and testing software.
World Wide Web (WWW / The Web): A part of the Internet consisting of web servers with HTML pages that are viewed on devices with web browsers, providing an easy way to navigate the Internet through hypertext.
WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access): An improved wireless security protocol over WEP, offering better security for Wi-Fi networks.
WPA2 (Wi-Fi Protected Access II): A widely adopted and more robust wireless security protocol that superseded WPA, offering stronger encryption and authentication for Wi-Fi networks.
WPA3 (Wi-Fi Protected Access III): The latest wireless security protocol standard, offering enhanced security features and improvements over WPA2 for Wi-Fi networks.
WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network): A category of wireless networks characterized by very short ranges (e.g., up to 10 meters), often associated with technologies like Bluetooth.
Zero Trust (Security Framework): Zero Trust is a cybersecurity model based on the principle “never trust, always verify.” It requires continuous authentication and authorization for every user and device, regardless of network location. Zero Trust minimizes the risk of lateral movement by enforcing strict access controls and microsegmentation.
Zigbee: A short-range wireless technology based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard (operating in the 2.4 GHz band) that enables low-power, low-data-rate, and low-cost communication between devices, primarily used for IoT applications like smart home automation171295. It supports mesh networking.
Z-Wave: A short-range wireless technology (sub-1 GHz band) mainly used for home automation, providing reliable, low-latency communication with a slightly longer range than Zigbee. It also supports mesh networking.
