13. Long-Range Wireless Technologies

Rita Mitra; Glenn Brown; Melanie Huffman; Hongyi Zhu

13. Long-Range Wireless Technologies

Chapter Objectives

13-1 Explain how LoRA (Long Range) radio enables wireless communication for IoT devices.
13-2 Compare cellular technologies, such as 4G, 5G, and LTE for various applications and scenarios.
13-3 Outline the major features of and use cases for WiMAX and other microwave technologies.
13-4 Describe the types, basic components and functions of a satellite communication system.
13-5 Compare the factors that affect long-range wireless performance, such as frequency, latency, power, distance, and interference, as well as methods to improve quality and reliability.

Radio

Radio wireless technology is the oldest and most widely used form of wireless communication, and it encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable applications, including radio and television broadcasting, cell phones, two-way radios, wireless networking, and wireless remote control devices. Radio wireless technology uses electromagnetic waves with frequencies below 1000 MHz, corresponding to wavelengths longer than 30 centimeters, to transmit data and voice signals. Radio wireless technology can also provide high-precision location tracking and secure digital keys for automotive and smart home devices.

Radio wave communications are pointed skyward as they are omnidirectional, low energy, and low frequency. By comparison, microwaves are transmitted unidirectional or in one direction at a time, use high energy at a higher frequency, and carry a higher amount of information than radio signals. Cellular phone networks utilize ultra-high frequency (UHF) at microwave ranges between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. UHF waves may also be utilized in wireless local area networks (LANs).

Radio wireless technology has several advantages over other wireless technologies, such as long range, low cost, and easy access. However, radio wireless technology also has some challenges, such as interference, noise, and spectrum congestion. We outline two radio network services.

Sigfox: Sigfox is a French company that provides a global network service for IoT devices using ultra-narrowband modulation. Sigfox operates in the license-free sub-gigahertz radio frequency bands, such as EU868, US902, and AS923. Sigfox can support data rates up to 100 bit/s, with a maximum payload size of 12 bytes per message and a maximum of 140 messages per day. Sigfox also offers geolocation services based on the signal strength and the identity of the base stations. Sigfox devices are very simple and low-cost, as they only need to transmit short messages to the nearest base station, which then forwards the data to the Sigfox cloud. Sigfox provides end-to-end security, scalability, and reliability for IoT applications.

LoRa stands for Long Range and is a proprietary technique developed by Cycleo, a company of Grenoble, France, and later acquired by Semtech. LoRA is designed to support the Internet of Things (IoT) devices that require bi-directional communication, end-to-end security, mobility and localization services. LoRa uses low-energy pulses of radio waves to transmit data and measure the location and direction of objects with high accuracy. LoRa can operate over a large portion of the radio spectrum, typically from 3.1 GHz to 10.6 GHz, and can co-exist with other wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and NFC, without causing interference. LoRa can achieve data rates between 0.3 kbit/s and 27 kbit/s, depending on the spreading factor, and can support up to 65,000 devices in a network. LoRa is mainly used for low-bandwidth applications that require long battery life and secure networking, such as smart cities, agriculture, and logistics. LoRA also has geolocation capabilities that can estimate the position of devices based on the timestamps from gateways.

LoRA is not only a physical layer technology, but also a part of a networking protocol called LoRaWAN, which defines the communication protocol and system architecture for LoRa devices. LoRaWAN is an official standard of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is managed by the open, non-profit LoRa Alliance. LoRaWAN comprises both a commercial and a community facet, such as The Things Network, which provides free access to the LoRaWAN network. LoRaWAN enables LoRa devices to connect to the internet in regional, national or global networks, and targets key IoT requirements.

LoRa Cloud is offered by Semtech services to track and geolocate devices using APIs. Companies at the forefront of LoRa Cloud include Vermont-Rep, CalChip Connect, Everynet, Helium, and Orange. Helium advertises decentralized wireless network services in over 61,000 cities and 170 countries (LoRa Cloud, 2024).

For more information on LoRA, visit its website, LoRa PHY | Semtech, and read this article:

“LoRa : Long Range Wireless Communication for IoT Applications.” Available: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/lora-long-range-wireless-communication-iot-aaron-walker.

Cellular

Cellular technologies are wireless communication systems that use cellular networks to connect mobile devices and data terminals. Cellular technologies can provide long-range wireless networking for various applications, such as voice calls, text messages, internet access, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Cellular technologies have evolved through several generations, each with different standards, features, and capabilities.

The first generation (1G) of cellular technology was introduced in the 1980s and used analog modulation to transmit voice signals over radio frequencies. 1G had limited capacity, security, and quality, and was soon replaced by the second generation (2G) in the 1990s. 2G used digital modulation and encryption to transfer both voice and data packets over the cellular network. 2G also introduced data services such as SMS and MMS, and supported data rates up to 64 kbit/s.

The third generation (3G) of cellular technology emerged in the early 2000s and offered higher data rates, improved voice quality, and enhanced security. 3G enabled multimedia applications such as video calls, streaming, and web browsing, and supported data rates up to 2 Mbit/s. 3G also introduced the concept of mobile broadband, which allowed users to access the internet from anywhere with cellular coverage.

The fourth generation (4G) of cellular technology was launched in the late 2000s and aimed to provide faster, more reliable, and more efficient wireless networking. 4G used a new radio interface and core network architecture based on IP protocols, and supported data rates up to 1 Gbit/s. 4G also enabled seamless integration of different wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

The fifth generation (5G) of cellular technology is the latest and most advanced wireless communication system is wide use today, and expected to revolutionize various industries and applications. 5G promises to deliver ultra-fast, ultra-reliable, and ultra-low latency wireless networking, with data rates up to 20 Gbit/s. 5G also supports massive connectivity of IoT devices, enhanced mobile broadband, and mission-critical services, such as autonomous vehicles and remote surgery. 5G uses a variety of technologies, such as massive MIMO, beamforming, and millimeter wave, to achieve its performance goals. 5G also introduces new cellular standards, such as LTE-M and NB-IoT, which are designed for low-power and long-range communication of IoT devices.

NB-IoT stands for Narrowband IoT and is a cellular technology that uses licensed spectrum to provide low-power and wide-area connectivity for IoT devices. NB-IoT is based on the LTE standard and is compatible with existing cellular networks. NB-IoT can support data rates up to 250 kbit/s, with a maximum payload size of 1600 bytes per message and a maximum of 40,000 devices per cell. NB-IoT also supports mobility, roaming, and quality of service features. NB-IoT devices can benefit from the high security, coverage, and reliability of the cellular infrastructure. NB-IoT is suitable for applications that require low latency, high availability, and long battery life, such as smart metering, smart parking, and smart lighting.

Concepts Corner

Cellular technology, the backbone of mobile communication, has evolved significantly from 1G to the upcoming 6G. Let’s look at some of the key elements of all cellular networks?

What is the basic network architecture of cellular networks?

Cells and Base Stations

The basic unit of a cellular network is a cell. Each cell is served by a base station (BS) or cell tower, which contains antennas and transceivers to facilitate communication with mobile devices.
The cell structure allows efficient frequency reuse across a geographical area, minimizing interference and maximizing coverage.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

The MSC is a crucial component that connects calls by routing them through the network. It manages communication between base stations and handles call setup, routing, and termination.
The MSC also interfaces with other networks like the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and the internet.

Frequency Reuse

To make efficient use of the available spectrum, cellular networks use frequency reuse. This means the same frequency bands are used in different cells that are sufficiently far apart to avoid interference.
A pattern of cells (often hexagonal) is used to determine which frequencies can be reused in adjacent cells.

Cell Splitting

As the demand for service in a particular area increases, a large cell can be split into smaller cells, each with its own base station. This increases capacity and allows more users to be served in the same geographic area.

Handovers

When a mobile user moves from one cell to another, the ongoing call or data session needs to be transferred to the new cell’s base station. This process is called handover or handoff. There are different types of handovers, such as hard handover (break-before-make) and soft handover (make-before-break), each with its own advantages and challenges.

Location and Mobility Management:

The network constantly monitors the location of mobile users to ensure they are connected to the best possible cell. This involves tracking user location and managing their mobility through location updates and paging.

What are the key technologies in modern cellular networks?

Multiple Access Techniques

Different generations of cellular technology have employed various multiple access techniques to allow multiple users to share the same frequency band efficiently. These include FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), CDMA, and OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access).

MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)

MIMO technology uses multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve communication performance. It enhances data rates and reliability by exploiting spatial diversity and multiplexing.

Carrier Aggregation

Carrier aggregation is a technique used in LTE and beyond to combine multiple frequency bands, increasing the overall bandwidth and data throughput available to users.

Network Slicing

In 5G, network slicing allows the creation of multiple virtual networks on a shared physical infrastructure. Each slice can be tailored to specific applications or services, optimizing performance and resource allocation.

For more history of cellular technology, you may want to read this book:

D. D. Garcia-Swartz and M. Campbell-Kelly, Cellular: An Economic and Business History of the International Mobile-Phone Industry. The MIT Press, 2022. doi: 10.7551/mitpress/11542.001.0001. Available: https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-monograph/5457/CellularAn-Economic-and-Business-History-of-the. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

The term mobile internet has gained in popularity as more users are no longer installing or utilizing existing landlines. US households now utilize cell phones to access and or serve the internet. The mobile internet involves accessing the internet through a mobile device. Mobile devices include smartphones, tablets, as well as Wi-Fi hotspots. The Internet may be accessed through a phone carrier’s network, Wi-Fi, or other wireless connections which may be public or private (GMSA, 2022). A user may utilize a phone to access the internet through Wi-Fi or even use the phone (smartphone) to serve as a hotspot. The mobile internet is expanding access to the internet in developing countries, in rural areas, and to low-income where landlines may not be readily available or accessible.

See how artificial intelligence and OpenRAN are being integrated for 6G (ITU, 2023) [1:16:11]

Satellite

Satellite technologies are wireless communication systems that use orbiting satellites to relay signals between devices on Earth. Satellite technologies can provide long-range wireless networking for various applications, such as voice calls, internet access, navigation, and remote sensing. Satellite technologies have some advantages and disadvantages compared to other wireless technologies, such as cellular and WiMAX.

Components of satellite communications systems consist of a satellite, ground station, and receivers/user terminals/phones/tablets, and/or devices. Satellite locations and orbits are known by the owner or originating body (the government or commercial entity that launched the satellite) as they orbit the earth and send out signals. The ground stations utilize radar to track the satellite(s) and confirm their location and path over the earth’s surface. A receiver may be a phone, terminal, or device that is constantly receiving satellite signals. The device, in relation to the satellite, will calculate the distance from the satellite determining position, at any given time, as well as altitude and or elevation based on the location of the device (European Space Agency, 2020; Johnson, 2010). The accuracy of the location, elevation, and movement depends on the number of satellites received. The greater the satellite coverage, the better or more enhanced the solution provided. An example of an improved solution is the car’s navigation system. The more vehicle satellites the receiver gains access to, the greater the fidelity of navigation.

Satellite constellations operate in various orbits, from the prospective of distance, latency, shape and relative speed to earth. The primary orbits are geo-stationary earth orbit (GEO), low earth orbit (LEO), medium earth orbit (MEO), and highly elliptical orbit (HEO).

Figure 13-1: The major satellite orbits (LEO, MEO, GEO & HEO)

The orbits are limited and considered a scarce resource. See the characteristics of each orbit in the table below (Elbahaay, Mohamed & Samir, et al., 2020).

Aspect

LEO

MEO

GEO

HEO

Distance

400-2,000 km

8,000-20,000km

35,786km

1,000(Perigee)-40,000(Apogee) km

Latency

Small

Long

Very Long

Orbit Shape

Nearly Circular

Elliptical

Rel. Speed

High

Low

Stationary

Varying

Table 13-1: Aspects of the primary satellite orbits

Satellites communicate via ground-based stations with satellites in orbit. The satellites in orbit provide uplink, downlink, and crosslink communications. The systems operate in one and two-way communications either providing an uplink and downlink communication or both uplink and downlink communication between the ground station and satellite. Satellites may link between satellites; this is referred to as a crosslink between satellites. The coverage may include both urban and rural areas (NASA, 2024).

One advantage of satellite technologies is that they can provide global coverage and reach areas where terrestrial networks are not available or too costly to deploy, beyond urban environments to rural and less populated areas across the ear. Satellite technologies can also support high data rates and high mobility of users and devices. Satellite technologies can enable seamless integration of different wireless technologies, such as LoRa and WiMAX, by providing backhaul and interconnection services. Annother advantage of satellite communication is the reduced cost of placing satellites in orbit. Since 1972 the size and mass of satellites have decreased to reduce cost, in both the construction and launch of satellites. The terms SmallSat and CubeSat evolved based on mass categorized as mini, micro, nano, pico, and femtosatellites (ChipSats) with total mass ranging from 10-180 kg to 0.01- .0.09 kg. “the size of a large postage stamp” (FAA/AST, 2018; NASA, 2024). Today’s satellites are powered by solar cells, arrays, and batteries.

Due to the distance from the receiver, latency and interference are two disadvantages of satellite communications (Benouakta, et al., 2023), due to the long distance between the satellites and the earth. In addition, the cost of the receiver, satellite dish, and terminals makes satellite communications more costly than subscriptions provided by cable companies. The issue here, once again, is the availability of cable companies and the lack of access to low-income, rural areas, and developing countries (Ronquillo, 2023).

Satellite technologies require high initial investment and maintenance costs for launching and operating satellites. Satellite technologies can also face challenges with security issues. Satellite technologies have to comply with various regulations and standards, such as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the LoRa Alliance.

Are you interested in how communications work on a spacecraft? The ninth chapter of NASA’s State-of-the-Art of Small Spacecraft Technology provides details: 9.0 Communications – NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/sst-soa/soa-communications/.

Microwave

Microwave wireless technology uses electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from about 30 centimeters to one millimeter, corresponding to frequencies between 1000 MHz and 300 GHz, to transmit data and voice signals. Microwave wireless technology is mainly used for point-to-point communications, where two devices are directly connected by a narrow beam of microwaves. Microwave wireless technology can also support other applications, such as radar, satellite, and spacecraft communication, medical diathermy and cancer treatment, remote sensing, radio astronomy, industrial heating, and collision avoidance systems. Microwave wireless technology has several advantages over other wireless technologies, such as high data rate, low power consumption, high precision, and robustness. However, microwave wireless technology also has some limitations, such as line-of-sight requirement, limited range, and atmospheric absorption.

Microwaves are used in communication to move data globally including TV, and telephone communications between satellites and microwave ground stations. Microwaves (medium-length C-, X-, and Ku- Band) penetrate through clouds, dust, smoke, snow, and rain and are used to relay signals from communication satellites. In addition, radio waves are also used in satellite communications. Wavelengths of radio waves have less energy than microwaves and are used more often with satellites in low earth orbit. Microwaves, with high energy wavelengths, are used to communicate with satellites in geostationary orbit. Radio waves, for example, are used to broadcast radio and television stations, and microwaves are utilized for Wi-Fi, and GPS devices along with mobile phones.

WiMAX is a wireless communication technology that uses microwave frequencies to provide broadband access to large areas. WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access and is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard. WiMAX can be used for various purposes, such as internet access, voice and video transmission, and backhaul for other wireless networks.

WiMAX has some advantages over other wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi and cellular. WiMAX can cover a range of up to 50 km, while Wi-Fi can only cover a few hundred meters. WiMAX can also support data rates up to 70 Mbps, while cellular networks can only offer up to 20 Mbps. WiMAX can operate in both line-of-sight and non-line-of-sight conditions, while other technologies require a clear path between the transmitter and the receiver. WiMAX can also support a large number of users and devices, as well as mobility and roaming.

WiMAX has some disadvantages as well. WiMAX requires high initial investment and maintenance costs for deploying and operating base stations and receivers. WiMAX also suffers from interference, attenuation, and security issues, as it uses unlicensed spectrum and shared medium. WiMAX also faces competition from other wireless technologies, such as LTE and 5G, which offer higher data rates, lower latency, and better quality of service. WiMAX also has to comply with various regulations and standards, such as the ITU and the WiMAX Forum, which certify the interoperability and performance of WiMAX equipment.

Microwave relay networks use a series of microwave antennas to transmit signals over long distances. Microwave relay networks can operate in the frequency range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz, and can support data rates up to 70 Mbps. Microwave relay networks were widely used for point-to-point communications and broadcasting until they were replaced by fiber-optic cables and satellites

Microwave power transmission (MPT) is a technique that uses microwaves to transfer energy wirelessly from a transmitter to a receiver. MPT can be used for various purposes, such as powering satellites, drones, or mobile facilities. MPT can operate in the frequency range of 2.45 GHz to 5.8 GHz, and can achieve power levels up to 10 kW. MPT faces challenges such as efficiency, robustness, and directional radiation

LRLP

Long Range Low Power (LRLP) wireless networks utilize microwave, radio wave, and satellite communication. Wireless networks include cell phone networks, wireless local area networks (WLANs), satellite communication networks, wireless sensor networks, and terrestrial microwave networks. Terrestrial microwave networks utilize transmitters and receivers located on the Earth’s surface and transmit data wirelessly by using microwave frequencies to establish communication connections or links. These transmitters and receivers may be on buildings, towers along a highway, or other structures that provide or enable an unobstructed line of sight between the transmitting and receiving antennas. Terrestrial microwave system advantages include high data capacity, low latency, and resistance to interference as they are typically set up in line of sight. Disadvantages include one-time cost of installation, maintenance, and distance to be covered. https://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-16/ftp/lrlpw/index.html

In comparison, short-range wireless network examples include Bluetooth, infrared, Wi-Fi, and even WiMax (WiMax is used in both short and long-range WANs).

LRLP wireless networks use low-power and long-range wireless technologies, such as SIGFOX, Ingenu, and LoRa, to connect IoT devices. LRLP networks can operate in the sub-gigahertz frequency bands, such as EU868, AU915, US915, IN865, and AS923, and can support data rates between 0.3 kbit/s and 27 kbit/s. LRLP networks are designed for applications that require low mobility and low data transfer.

For an overview of long-range wireless radio technologies, read this article:

B. Foubert and N. Mitton, “Long-Range Wireless Radio Technologies: A Survey,” Future Internet, vol. 12, no. 1, p. 13, Jan. 2020, doi: 10.3390/fi12010013. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/12/1/13.

Finally, if you are interesting in an IoT project to consolidate what you’ve learned in this course, check out the following idea!

LoRa – Long-Range Radio for IoT | Arduino, ESP32, RPI Pico (DroneBot Workshop, 2023) [1:07:57]

The factors that affect long-range (LR) wireless performance are the same or similar factors that affect satellite communications as stated, frequency, latency, power, distance, interference, and weather (Benouakta, et al., 2023). Emerging technologies in LR wireless communications include fiber optics, which are not wired communications although cables are run, the medium utilized in fiber optics is light. Infrared devices are also used as wireless technology. WiMax utilizing microwave technology is considered both short and long-range wireless communication and is utilized in both Wide Area Networks and Metropolitan Area Networks.

Discussion Topics

The satellites in low earth orbit provide broadband connectivity for households in rural and remote areas where internet access is not available. As an example. Starlink provides broadband satellite services to both civilitan and military consumers. A recent example includes Starlink access by the Ukraine military when access to Internet services was disrupted by Russia.

According to the Global System for Mobile Communications Associations’ (GSMA) The State of Mobile Internet Connectivity 2022 report, “5% of the world’s population, or 400 million people, still do not have access to a mobile broadband network” even with the current global reach and abundance of satellites in orbit. The advantage of satellite communication is its global reach, for those who have access. here are even mobile satellite dishes that may be carried in a backpack or erected on a vehicle.

Think back to the telecommunications monopoly of Bell/AT&T. Could this kind of monopoly become an issue with broadband satellite companies such as Starlink? How might a satellite monopoly be avoided?
Examine the role of satellite communications in geopolitical conflicts and natural disasters. How can international cooperation and regulation be improved to ensure the reliability and security of satellite services in such critical situations?
With the advent of portable satellite communication devices, what new opportunities might be available for industries such as agriculture, transportation, and education?

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Telecommunications and Networking Copyright © by Rita Mitra; Glenn Brown; Melanie Huffman; and Hongyi Zhu is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.