B. The Growth of the Internet

Let’s look at the parallel growth of digital technology in the twentieth century next.

Early Computing

In the early days of computing, computers were seen as devices for making calculations, storing data, and automating business processes. However, as the devices evolved, it became apparent that many of the functions of telecommunications could be integrated into the computer. During the 1980s, many organizations began combining their once-separate telecommunications and information-systems departments into an information technology, or IT, department. This ability for computers to communicate with one another and, perhaps more importantly, to facilitate communication between individuals and groups, has been an important factor in the growth of computing over the past several decades.

In the Beginning: ARPANET

The story of the Internet, and networking in general, can be traced back to the late 1950s. The United States was in the depths of the Cold War with the U.S.S.R., and each nation closely watched the other to determine who would gain a military or intelligence advantage. In 1957, the Soviets surprised the U.S. with the launch of Sputnik, propelling us into the space age. In response to Sputnik, the U.S. Government created the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), whose initial role was to ensure that the U.S. was not surprised again. It was from ARPA, now called DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), that the Internet first sprang.

ARPA was the center of computing research in the 1960s, but there was just one problem: many of the computers could not talk to each other. In 1968, ARPA sent out a request for proposals (RFP) for a communication technology that would allow different computers located around the country to be integrated together into one network. Twelve companies responded to the request, and a company named Bolt, Beranek, and Newman (BBN) won the contract. They began work right away and were able to complete the job just one year later. In September, 1969, the ARPANET was turned on. The first four nodes were at UCLA, Stanford, MIT, and the University of Utah.

The Internet and the World Wide Web

Over the next decade, the ARPANET grew and gained popularity. During this time, other networks also came into existence. Different organizations were connected to different networks. This led to a problem: the networks could not talk to each other. Each network used its own proprietary language, or protocol, to send information back and forth. This problem was solved by the invention of transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP). TCP/IP was designed to allow networks running on different protocols to have an intermediary protocol that would allow them to communicate. So as long as your network supported TCP/IP, you could communicate with all of the other networks running TCP/IP. TCP/IP quickly became the standard protocol and allowed networks to communicate with each other. It is from this breakthrough that we first got the term Internet, which simply means “an interconnected network of networks.”

As we moved into the 1980s, computers were added to the Internet at an increasing rate. These computers were primarily from government, academic, and research organizations. Much to the surprise of the engineers, the early popularity of the Internet was driven by the use of electronic mail, or email.

Using the Internet in these early days was not easy. In order to access information on another server, you had to know how to type in the commands necessary to access it, as well as know the name of that device. That all changed in 1990, when Tim Berners-Lee introduced his World Wide Web project, which provided an easy way to navigate the Internet through the use of linked text hypertext. The World Wide Web gained even more steam with the release of the Mosaic browser in 1993, which allowed graphics and text to be combined together as a way to present information and navigate the Internet. The Mosaic browser took off in popularity and was soon superseded by Netscape Navigator, the first commercial web browser, in 1994. The Internet and the World Wide Web were now poised for growth. The chart below shows the growth in users from the early days until now.

The Dot-Com Bubble

In the 1980s and early 1990s, the Internet was being managed by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The NSF had restricted commercial ventures on the Internet, which meant that no one could buy or sell anything online. In 1991, the NSF transferred its role to three other organizations, thus getting the U.S. government out of direct control over the Internet and essentially opening up commerce online.

This new commercialization of the Internet led to what is now known as the dot-com bubble. A frenzy of investment in new dot-com companies took place in the late 1990s, running up the stock market to new highs on a daily basis. This investment bubble was driven by the fact that investors knew that online commerce would change everything. Unfortunately, many of these new companies had poor business models and ended up with little to show for all of the funds that were invested in them. In 2000 and 2001, the bubble burst and many of these new companies went out of business. Many companies also survived, including the still-thriving Amazon (started in 1994). After the dot-com bubble burst, a new reality became clear. In order to succeed online, e-business companies would need to develop real business models and show that they could survive financially using this new technology.

Web 2.0 and Web 3.0

In the first few years of the World Wide Web, creating and putting up a website required a specific set of knowledge. One had to know how to set up a server on the World Wide Web, how to get a domain name, how to write web pages in HTML, and how to troubleshoot various technical issues as they came up. Someone who did these jobs for a website became known as a webmaster.

As the web gained in popularity, it became more and more apparent that those who did not have the skills to be a webmaster still wanted to create online content and have their own piece of the web. This need was met with new technologies that provided a website framework for those who wanted to put content online. Blogger and Wikipedia are examples of these early Web 2.0 applications, which allowed anyone with something to say a place to go and say it, without the need for understanding HTML or web-server technology.

Starting in the early 2000s, Web 2.0 applications began a second bubble of optimism and investment. It seemed that everyone wanted their own blog or photo-sharing site. Some of the companies that came of age during this time include MySpace (2003), Photobucket (2003), Flickr (2004), Facebook (2004), WordPress (2005), Tumblr (2006), and Twitter (2006). The ultimate indication that Web 2.0 had taken hold was when Time magazine named “You” its “Person of the Year” in 2006.

Web 3.0, often referred to as the “Semantic Web,” represents the third generation of internet services that aim to enable a more intelligent, connected, and decentralized web experience. Unlike its predecessors, which focused on static and interactive content, Web 3.0 integrates advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and blockchain to facilitate data-driven, decentralized applications. This evolution allows for enhanced user autonomy, with data ownership and security at the forefront. Notable examples include decentralized finance (DeFi) platforms like Ethereum, which enable peer-to-peer financial transactions without intermediaries, and the emergence of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that revolutionize digital ownership and authenticity. As Web 3.0 continues to evolve, it promises to reshape industries by enhancing transparency, interoperability, and user control.

Read this paper to learn more about Web 3.0 and the issues around sustainability in technology consumption:

Rathor, Shekhar, Mingyu Zhang, and Taehoon Im. 2023. “Web 3.0 and Sustainability: Challenges and Research Opportunities” Sustainability 15, no. 20: 15126. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152015126.

Digital Connections

The Internet was originally designed as a way for scientists and researchers to share information and computing power among themselves. However, as soon as electronic mail was invented, it began driving demand for the Internet. This wasn’t what the developers had in mind, but it turned out that people connecting to people was the “killer app” for the Internet.

When the personal computer was created, it was a great little toy for technology hobbyists and armchair programmers. As soon as the spreadsheet was invented, however, businesses took notice, and the spreadsheet became the “killer app” for the personal computer. We are seeing this again today with social networks such as Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok. Many who weren’t convinced to have an online presence now feel left out without a social media account. The connections made between people using Web 2.0 applications on their personal computer or smartphone is driving growth yet again.

While the Internet and web were evolving, corporate networking was also taking shape in the form of local area networks and client-server computing. The Internet’s takeover of the global communication landscape was rapid in historical terms: it only communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in the year 1993, 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by 2007. Internet technologies began to pervade all areas of the organization. Now, with the Internet a global phenomenon, it would be unthinkable to have a computer that did not include communications capabilities. Today, both analog and digital technologies are intrinsically related. The Internet is a digital technology that has revolutionized telecommunications, enabling people to communicate with each other from anywhere in the world at any time.

The Internet has become the world’s most extensive public communication system, working in conjunction with the global telephone system. Modern digital networks and the Internet are based on three key technologies: client/server computing, packet switching, and widely used communications standards (the most important of which is Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol or TCP/IP) for linking disparate networks and computers.

Wireless Networking

Today we are used to being able to access the Internet wherever we go. Our smartphones can access the Internet; Starbucks provides wireless “hotspots” for our laptops or tablets. These wireless technologies have made Internet access more convenient and have made portable devices much more functional. Let’s examine a few of these wireless technologies.Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) is a technology that takes an Internet signal and converts it into radio waves. These radio waves can be picked up within a radius of approximately 65 feet by devices with a wireless adapter. Several Wi-Fi specifications have been developed over the years, starting with 802.11b (1999), and development continues today to enhance its functionality. Each new specification improved the speed and range of Wi-Fi, allowing for more uses. One of the primary places where Wi-Fi is being used is in the home. Home users are purchasing Wi-Fi routers, connecting them to their broadband connections, and then connecting multiple Internet of Things (IoT) devices via Wi-Fi.

Mobile Networking

As the cellphone has evolved into the smartphone, the desire for Internet access on these devices has led to data networks being included as part of the mobile phone network. While Internet connections were technically available earlier, it was really with the release of the 3G networks in 2001 (2002 in the U.S.) that smartphones and other cellular devices could access data from the Internet. This new capability drove the market for new and more powerful smartphones, such as the iPhone, introduced in 2007. In 2011, wireless carriers began offering 4G networks and data speeds, giving the cellular networks the same speeds that customers were used to getting via their home connections. Today, 5G networks provide higher performance, functionality, and efficiency globally. Meanwhile, the development of 6G is underway, with commercial deployment expected around 2030. 6G networks aim to build on 5G advancements to provide even higher speeds, lower latency, and new capabilities like advanced sensing and AI integration. Read more here:

Giménez-Antón, Sergio, Eduard Grasa, Jordi Perelló, and Andrés Cárdenas. 2024. “6G-RUPA: A Flexible, Scalable, and Energy-Efficient User Plane Architecture for Next-Generation Mobile Networks” Computers 13, no. 8: 186. https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13080186.

Broadband Networks

Broadband networks or broadband telecommunications are the transmission of high-quality data of wide bandwidth. A high-speed Internet access connection is always on and has access rates that are faster than traditional access rates. A wide bandwidth is defined or encompasses the ability to transport multiple signals over a broad range of frequencies and support different internet traffic types. This allows multiple data streams to be sent at once.  Think of your bandwidth as a highway, and your data as cars that travel at the same speed. The more lanes you have on the highway, the more cars may travel at a time. It will take 4 cars traveling on a one-lane road to their destination more time than 4 cars traveling on a four-lane highway. The FCC defines broadband as transmission rates of at least 25 Mbps (megabits per second) download and 3 Mbps upload from the user’s computer to the Internet. Broadband connections may include Wi-Fi, digital subscriber lines (DSL), fiber, broadband over powerline (BPL), and satellite communications.

Broadband over power line (BPL) is a method of providing high-rate, high-speed, digital data transmissions over electric power lines. In addition, BPL may be accessed or utilized through the electrical wires in a home to run high-speed, digital transmissions, and to extend Wi-Fi signals.

BPL technologies are based on power line communication technology developed by AT&T in 1914 (Schwartz, 2007). Cisco, Netgear, and Juniper offer in-home BPL routers. BPL routers are connected to your PC (personal computer) and an electrical wall socket near your PC. Additional BPL devices may be placed in other rooms, upstairs, or downstairs to relay or amplify your Wi-Fi broadband broadcast or signal. Broadband over power lines is an engineering solution with the potential to provide broadband communication to rural areas, low-income, and developing countries in the early 1990s. Wi-Fi extender (booster, repeater) technology is available across multiple providers extending wireless communication signals and is currently utilized by public and private entities, homes, businesses, and universities.

A disadvantage of BPL is the amplification of noise across unshielded powerlines which may act as antennae for the digital transmission carried on the power lines (FCC-11-160A, 2009). The noise created by the Broadband over Power Line transmission has the potential to interfere with ARRL (American Radio Relay League) shortwave radio communications (HAM operators, amateur radio operators). The ARRL has a strong voice within the FCC, congress, and across the United States.

National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NITA) “Introduction to Broadband and High-Speed Internet” https://broadbandusa.ntia.gov/sites/default/files/2022-12/Introduction_to_Broadband_and_High_Speed_Internet_FINAL_0.pdf.

Bluetooth

While Bluetooth is not generally used to connect a device to the Internet, it is an important wireless technology that has enabled many functionalities that are used every day. When created in 1994 by Ericsson, it was intended to replace wired connections between devices. Today, it is the standard method for connecting nearby devices wirelessly. Bluetooth has a range of approximately 300 feet and consumes very little power, making it an excellent choice for a variety of purposes. Some applications of Bluetooth include connecting a printer to a personal computer, connecting a mobile phone and headset, connecting a wireless keyboard and mouse to a computer, and connecting a remote for a presentation made on a personal computer.

VoIP

A growing class of data being transferred over the Internet is voice data. A protocol known as voice over IP, or VoIP, enables sounds to be converted to a digital format for transmission over the Internet and then re-created at the other end. By using many existing technologies and software, voice communication over the Internet is now available to anyone with a browser (e.g., Zoom). Beyond this, most companies are now offering VoIP-based telephone service for business and home use.

Cloud Computing

The universal availability of the Internet combined with increases in processing power and data-storage capacity have made cloud computing a viable option for many companies. Using cloud computing, companies or individuals can contract to store data on storage devices somewhere on the Internet. Applications can be “rented” as needed, giving a company the ability to quickly deploy new applications.

The networking revolution has completely changed how the computer is used. Today, no one would imagine using a computer that was not connected to one or more networks. The development of the Internet and World Wide Web, combined with wireless access, has made information available at our fingertips. The Web 2.0 revolution has made us all authors of web content. As networking technology has matured, the use of Internet technologies has become a standard for every type of organization. The use of intranets and extranets have allowed organizations to deploy functionality to employees and business partners alike, increasing efficiencies and improving communications. Cloud computing facilitates the availability of information everywhere and at the same time, propagates wide-ranging implications for the role of the IT department.

Adapted from “Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019), Chapter 5” by David Bourgeois and licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 / A derivative from the original work

Concepts Corner

The Internet and the World Wide Web

Many times, the terms “Internet” and “World Wide Web,” or even just “the web,” are used interchangeably. But really, they are not the same thing at all! The Internet is an interconnected network of networks. Many services run across the Internet: electronic mail, voice and video, file transfers, and, yes, the World Wide Web.

The World Wide Web is simply one piece of the Internet. It is made up of web servers that have HTML pages that are being viewed on devices with web browsers.

Metcalfe’s Law

Just as Moore’s Law describes how computing power is increasing over time, Metcalfe’s Law describes the power of networking. Specifically, Metcalfe’s Law states that the value of a telecommunications network is proportional to the square of the number of connected users of the system. Think about it. If none of your friends were on Instagram, would you spend much time there? If no one else at your workplace or school used Slack or Discord, would it be very useful to you? Metcalfe’s Law attempts to quantify this value.

The Digital Divide

The Internet has wired the world. Today, it is just as simple to communicate with someone on the other side of the world as it is to talk to someone next door. But keep in mind that many businesses attempted to outsource different needs in technology, only to discover that near-sourcing (outsourcing to countries to which your country is physically connected) had greater advantage.

The Internet is truly a worldwide phenomenon. From its initial beginnings in the United States in the 1970s to the development of the World Wide Web in the 1990s to the e-commerce and social networks of today, the Internet has continued to increase the integration between countries, making globalization a fact of life for citizens all over the world.

As the Internet continues to make inroads across the world, it is also creating a separation between those who have access to this global network and those who do not. This separation is called the “digital divide,” and a matter of great concern.

The digital divide can occur between countries, regions, or even neighborhoods. In many cities in the United States, there are pockets with little or no Internet access, while just a few miles away, high-speed broadband is common. Solutions to the digital divide have had mixed success over the years. Often, just providing Internet access and/or computing devices is not enough to bring true Internet access to a country, region, or neighborhood.

A New Understanding of the Digital Divide

In 2006, web-usability consultant Jakob Nielsen wrote an article that got to the heart of our understanding of this problem. In his article, Nielsen breaks the digital divide up into three stages: the economic divide, the usability divide, and the empowerment divide.

• Economic divide. This is what many call the digital divide. The economic divide is the idea that some people can afford to have a computer and Internet access while others cannot. Because of Moore’s Law, the price of hardware has continued to drop and, at this point, we can now access digital technologies, such as smartphones, for very little. Nielsen asserts that for all intents and purposes, the economic divide is a moot point and we should not focus our resources on solving it.
• Usability divide. Usability is concerned with the fact that “technology remains so complicated that many people couldn’t use a computer even if they got one for free.” And even for those who can use a computer, accessing all the benefits of having one is beyond their understanding. Included in this group are those with low literacy and seniors. According to Nielsen, we know how to help these users, but we are not doing it because there is little profit in doing so.
• Empowerment divide. Empowerment is the most difficult to solve. It is concerned with how we use technology to empower ourselves. Very few users truly understand the power that digital technologies can give them. In his article, Nielsen explains that his and others’ research has shown that very few users contribute content to the Internet, use advanced search, or can even distinguish paid search ads from organic search results. Many people will limit what they can do online by accepting the basic, default settings of their computer and not work to understand how they can truly be empowered.

Understanding the digital divide using these three stages provides a more nuanced view of how we can work to alleviate it. More work needs to be done to address the second and third stages of the digital divide for a more holistic solution.

Refining the Digital Divide

The Miniwatts Marketing Group, host of Internet World Stats, has sought in 2018 to further clarify the meaning of digital divide by acknowledging that the divide is more than just who does or does not have access to the Internet. In addition to Nielsen’s economic, usability, and empowerment divides, this group sees the following concerns.

• Social mobility. Lack of computer education works to the disadvantage of children with lower socioeconomic status.
• Democracy. Greater use of the Internet can lead to healthier democracies especially in participation in elections.
• Economic growth. Greater use of the Internet in developing countries could provide a shortcut to economic advancement. Using the latest technology could give companies in these countries a competitive advantage.

The focus on the continuing digital divide has led the European Union to create an initiative known as The European 2020 Strategy. Five major areas are being targeted: a) research and development, b) climate/energy, c) education, d) social inclusion, and e) poverty reduction.

Bridging the Digital Divide IRL

Non-profit initiatives are tackling the digital divide, community by community. As an example, Bridge the Digital Divide, a California 501(c)3 nonprofit, focuses on helping seniors bridge the gap in technology access by “providing affordable technology, low-cost internet, digital literacy training, and personalized tech support tailored specifically for their needs”. This training includes social connections that “emphasize education, creativity, and lifelong learning, enabling seniors to stay engaged, informed, and connected with their loved ones and communities.” At the same time, the organization aims to reduce e-waste by reusing/refurbishing technology.

Learn more about Bridge The Digital Divide on their website.

Adapted from Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019) by David Bourgeois is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.